Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy

Around 12% of all pregnancies occur to women who continue to smoke throughout their pregnancy. Two thirds of those involved in maternal smoking during pregnancy are Caucasian. More than 500,000 infants each year are exposed to cigarette smoke in utero. Maternal smoking during pregnancy has been heavily linked to many infant and toddler health issues. Health issues are also apparent in women who do not smoke during pregnancy, but are regularly exposed to smoke during their pregnancy.   This applies most to those who live with a smoker, or those who work in smoking environments. It is a known fact that maternal smoking during pregnancy produces more premature births and babies with lower birth weights. Maternal smoking during pregnancy has also been associated with babies who have colic. It has been found that tobacco smoke raises levels of motilin in the blood and intestines when maternal smoking during pregnancy is apparant. These raised levels causes contractions of the stomach and intestines to increase. The increased levels of motilin can cause colic in infants, which can cause the infants pain and discomfort for months. Studies show that infants who had colic at 3 months of age had more sleep difficulties and temper tantrums at 3 years of age in comparison with those children without colic. Studies show that maternal smoking during pregnancy leads to more rebellious and aggressive infants and toddlers, helping to link smoking during pregnancy to behavior in infants and toddlers. Mothers who smoked during pregnancy also reported more negative behavior from their infants and toddlers than mothers who did not smoke during pregnancy. Studies show that maternal smoking during pregnancy can have behavioral affects on the infant well into adulthood. Question Does maternal smoking during pregnancy affect the personality (behavior, mood) of an infant and continue to have an affect into toddler hood? Hypothesis It is suspected that maternal smoking during pregnancy does indeed have an affect on the personality (behavior, mood) of an infant and continues to have an affect into toddler hood. Conducting a study on the behavior of infants born to mothers who smoked during their pregnancy, and continuing the study through their toddler years can provide adequate research for this question. This study would need to monitor the child in his or her normal environment as well as in typical social environments. The child’s behavior would then be compared to the behavior of children of the same age and developmental stage that were born to mothers who did not smoke during the pregnancy. By collecting all of the data and analyzing it, there may be a pattern of behavior differences between the children who were born to smoking mothers and those who were born to non-smoking mothers. Problems It may be difficult to pinpoint aggressive or negative behavior from children on the sole fact that their mother smoked during their pregnancy. It will be difficult to factor in behavioral and discipline techniques used by guardians of these children. It may be difficult to get mothers to admit they smoked during their pregnancy, as they may be embarrassed of their lack of attention to the health issues that may have been affected. It may be impossible to set a standard and determine what is normal rebellious behavior for an infant and toddler and what is abnormal behavior. Sources Hitti, Miranda. â€Å"Tobacco Smoke May Increase Colic†. 4 October, 2004. http://my.webmd.com/content/article/94/103060.htm. Acquired on 22 June 2005. â€Å"Infant Deaths Tied to Premature Births†. New York Times. 1 March, 1995. http://www.stat.berkeley.edu/users/statlabs/papers/sample.pdf.   Acquired on 22 June 2005. â€Å"Prenatal Smoking Data Book: Smoking and Reproductive Outcomes†.   www.cdc.com. Acquired on 22 June 2005. Schonfeld, Amy Rothman PhD.   â€Å"Dreading the ‘Terrible Twos'? Don't Smoke, Mothers Warned†.   13 April, 2000. http://my.webmd.com/content/article/23/1728_56585.htm. Acquired on 22 June 2005. ; ; Maternal smoking during pregnancy The Research Question would be â€Å"Are babies born from mothers who smoke during the pregnancy have greater chances of developing low-birth weight, compared to those born from mothers who do not smoke?†A study was conducted on pregnant women that belonged to a Maternity Hospital in Haguenau, France, in 1974.   248 pregnant women that smoked at least five cigarettes a day were defined as ‘cases’, and 196 pregnant women who did not smoke were defined as ‘controls’.Tests conducted on the placenta demonstrated higher incidences of defective trophoblasts in smokers compared to non-smokers.   The signs of intrauterine hypoxia, low birth-weight and low placental weight, were also higher in smokers compared to non-smokers.   However, the study was not able to establish a relationship between low birth-weight and low placental weight or intrauterine hypoxia (Shipra, A. Et al, 1977).Another study conducted demonstrated that mothers who smoked during one pregnancy had produced infants with lower birth-weight, compared to those infants born during pregnancy when they did not smoke.   This was irrespective of the birth order and other factors that affect the growth of the unborn baby in the utreus.   The reduction in the birth weight was directly associated with the number of cigarettes smoked.Mothers, who smoked less, produced infants on an average 90 grams less than normal, whereas those who smoked heavily developed babies on an average 533 grams below normal.   Smoking brought about the development of several lesions in the placental due to under-perfusion (which was usually periodic).   Besides, pregnancy during smoking was on an average 1.5 days shorter than without smoking (Naeye, R.L., 1978).A study was also able to demonstrate that women who quit smoking during pregnancy are able to reduce the several risks associated with pregnancy such as low birth-weight, preterm labor, spontaneous abortion, etc, and period of brea stfeeding also improved (Giglia, R.C. Et al, 2006).A study conducted in Johannesburg and Sweto, in 1990, demonstrated that women who smoked (6.1%) and used snuff (7.5%) during the pregnancy, produced babies who weight an average 2982 grams compared to babies of non-smokers who weighted 3148 grams, on an average.   However, environmental pollutants (such as passive smoking) did not significantly adversely affect the birth weight (Steyn, K., Et al, 2006).Another study conducted in Pelotas, Brazil, in 193, demonstrated that smoking in mothers produced babies on an average 142 grams below that of the non-smokers average.   The study also demonstrated that the risk of fetal retardation was higher with the extent of smoking.   However, the study did not find any relationship between preterm delivery and smoking (Horbta, H.L. Et al, 1997).Hence, it is obvious that birth-weight of the baby is directly affected to the extent of smoked (number of cigarettes) by the mother during pregnan cy.   Further studies need to be conducted on the exact manner in which smoking causes a reduction in the birth-weight of the child.References:Giglia, R.C., Binns, C.W., & Alfonso, H.S. (2006). Which women stop smoking during pregnancy and the effect on breastfeeding duration. BMC Public Health, 2696Z), 195.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16869976?dopt=AbstractPlusHorta, B.L., Victora, C.G., Menezes, A.M., Halpern, R., & Barros, F.C. (1997). Low birthweight, preterm births and intrauterine growth retardation in relation to maternal smoking. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol, 11(2), 140-151. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9131707?dopt=abstractplusNaeye, R. L. (1978). Effects of maternal cigarette smoking on the fetus and placenta. Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 85(10), 732-737.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/708656?dopt=abstractplusSpira, A., Philippe, E., Spira, N., Dreyfus, J., & Schwartz, D. (1977). Smoking during pregnancy and placental pathology. Biomedicine, 27(7Z), 266-270.http s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/588667?dopt=AbstractSteyn, K., de Wet, T., Saloojee, Y., Nel, H., & Yach D. (2006). The influence of maternal cigarette smoking, snuff use and passive smoking on pregnancy outcomes: the Birth to Ten Study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol, 20(2), 90-99.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16466427&query_hl=6&itool=pubmed_DocSum